64 Specifically, the G allele (a perfect proxy for the C allele at rs6313) tends to be associated

with reduced expression of the receptor. It can therefore be inferred that reduced availability of the 5-HT2A receptor is a risk factor for tardive dyskinesia. Notably, 5-HT2A receptors are strongly expressed in the caudate and putamen,65 and recent evidence obtained from dopamine-depleted rodents suggests a complex interplay of subcortical dopamine and 5-HT in the regulation of motor behavior.66 Two genes outside of the dopamine and 5-HT systems have received sufficient attention in the pharmacogenetics of TD to merit meta-analysis (Table I). Many commonly prescribed APDs, including FGAs (haloperidol, perphenazine, thioridazine), Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as well as SGAs (risperidone and aripiprazole), are metabolized in the liver by CYP2D6 (debrisoquine hydroxylase).67 The CYP2D6 gene is highly polymorphic, with over 70 known variants (for a current classification, view the allele nomenclature at http://www.imm.ki.se/CYPalleles/).

Homozygosity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for null alleles gives rise to the “poor metabolizer” phenotype characterized by no enzyme activity while null allele heterozygosity gives rise to an intermediate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical debrisoquine hydroxylase metabolic phenotype characterized by impaired – but not absent – enzyme activity.68 Reduced CYP2D6 activity can be expected to result in higher effect dose as measured by blood levels of active drug, with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical potential for increased dose-dependent side effects. Consistent with this pharmacokinetic prediction, a metaanalysis of 8 selleck chemical Tofacitinib studies demonstrated a moderate effect of (any) loss of function alleles on risk for TD (OR=1.43), while homozygotes (poor metabolizers) had 1.64-fold greater odds of suffering tardive dyskinesia.44 A recent small study further confirms these results.69 A similar

effect has been studied for SOD2, the gene encoding manganese superoxide dismutase, a mitochondrial enzyme involved in oxidative metabolism. A functional SNP (Ala9Val), affecting efficiency of MnSOD Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical transport, has been associated with TD risk; counterintuitively, the less efficient val allele is protective.39 Homozygotes for the Ala (T) allele are about twice Drug_discovery as likely to develop TD compared with val carriers (Table I). Extrapyramidal symptoms Compared with the relative plethora of studies on tardive dyskinesia, pharmacogenetic studies of EPS are lacking. However, a few studies have reported allelic effects on acute side effects that are consistent with those reported for TD. For example, Eichammer et al70 reported increased incidence of akathisia somehow amongst DRD3 Gly carriers; however, two studies of extrapyramidal symptoms have been negative.71,72 One additional study identified another DRD3 SNP (rs167771) which was associated with EPS in a study of 270 risperidonetreated patients,73 but this result awaits replication.