Heart malformations, cleft lip and palate, skeletal deformities, diaphragmatic hernias, malformations of the central nervous system, gastrointestinal atresias, and urogenital malformations have most commonly been reported.100 Heart, failure and craniofacial clefts are the

malformations with the highest incidence in children of women with epilepsy.100 In order to estimate the increased Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical risk of malformations accordingly, one has to keep in mind the spontaneous malformation rates in the general population. Figures in the literature vary from 0.4% to 6.4%. 113 Holmes et al108 reported an incidence of 1.8%, according to other reports it ranges between 2% and 3%.71,114 Malformations in children of women with epilepsy who did not take AEDs Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical during pregnancy are similar and range between 0% and 3.5% (in smaller

cohorts than in the studies on the general population).108,109,115,116 This suggests no epilepsy-specific additional risk. However, this is not necessarily true, since the underlying epilepsy syndromes in the above patients were apparently less active, since chronic medication was not Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical required. Therefore data on active epilepsies without AED intake that would answer the question of epilepsy-specific teratogenicity do not exist, at least not in countries where sufficient epidemiological studies on the topic have been performed. Whether or not children of fathers with epilepsy who are on AEDs have an increased teratogenic risk is a matter of controversy.106,117 Hie available data do not allow to claim such an elevated risk unequivocally. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical An independent impact of AEDs is Pomalidomide supplier probable, since the risk of malformations is also higher in children of mothers who were on AEDS for reasons other than epilepsy.108 Risk in women with epilepsy taking AEDs In women with epilepsy on AED therapy the teratogenic risk for major congenital malformations was reported Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to range between

4% and approximately 14%.69,108,109,118,119 The ongoing pregnancy registries report incidence rates of 3.7% in Taiwan,120 4.2% in the UK registry,103 and 6.4% in Germany.96 Since association between the risk of malformations and the amount of individual serum peak concentrations has been suggested, multiple dosing, especially in the case of VPA, should be considered.121 Mephenoxalone Minor congenital malformations such as minor craniofacial abnormalities, epicanthus, or hypertelorism are relatively common in children of women with epilepsy and treatment with AEDs. However, it is almost, impossible to assess precisely the impact, of AEDs. It is apparent that these abnormalities are not drug-specific as was previously assumed, and that they are observed under the influence of each of the classical AEDs.71,122,123,124 Reliable data on new AEDs are not. yet available. A realistic estimate suggests that minor abnormalities are twice as frequent as in the general population (28% versus 14%).125 Combinations of AEDs Polytherapy is a risk factor for congenital malformations, including new AEDs.