These sperm exhibit altered

motility as well and an impairment in their ability to adhere to both the zona pellucida and to the oolemma proper in vitro, associated with impaired fertilization. Alteration in the sperm tail beating was noted, and fewer sperm were found within the oviducts of wild-type females mated with nectin-2 knockout males than wild-type males. Subsequent studies have shown that nectin-2 is expressed by Sertoli cells and nectin-3, its counter receptor, is present on spermatozoa.21 Knockout of either of these molecules is associated with alteration of sperm shape, motility, and male fertility. During sexual relations, semen is deposited in the vagina after ejaculation. Although the vaginal pH click here is approximately 4.5, due to the production of lactic acid by resident lactobacilli, during female sexual excitement, the vaginal pH rises toward neutral. Seminal fluid is slightly alkaline (pH 7.2 – 7.8) and has significant buffering capacity.22 In addition, the normal pH of cervical mucus in the absence of semen is approximately 7.0, in the late follicular

phase of the menstrual cycle. The characteristics of cervical mucus change at this time, allowing the entry of spermatozoa into the uterus and Fallopian tubes. Recent studies by Ceballo et al.23 suggest that HIV binds to human spermatozoa via heparin sulfate on the sperm surface, most likely involving syndecans 3 and 4, rather a mannose receptor. In addition, they showed selleck chemicals that spermatozoa were internalized and promoted the uptake of HIV by DC in culture, which subsequently

exhibited a marked increase in the expression of HLA-DR, CD40, CD83, and CCR7. The authors speculated that spermatozoa transmit the virus to mucosal DC’s within the reproductive tract and might alter the immune response against HIV by modulating their function. As sperm are foreign cells that enter the female reproductive tract at coitus, why Thiamine-diphosphate kinase is an immune response against them not mounted, as it is against microbes such as chlamydia and yeast.22,23 The female reproductive tract is capable of mounting an immune response to pathogens.24,25 There is increasing evidence that seminal plasma, which had conventionally been viewed solely as a transport medium for sperm, plays additional roles beyond this within the female reproductive tract (Table I). Seminal plasma has potent immunosuppressive activity, which can principally be attributed to its high content of TGF-beta26,27 and PGE prostaglandins.28 Emami et al.29 have provided evidence for the involvement of members of the seminal kallikrein-related peptidase (KLK) cascade in activation of latent TGF-beta in seminal plasma. Skibinski et al30 have shown that seminal plasma inhibits the function of both NK cell and T lymphocytes, and that the E series prostaglandins are responsible for the major portion of this suppression.