Evidence based on sputum culture results suggests that bacterial infection may be responsible for around half of AE-COPD,15 with a clear relationship being demonstrated between sputum purulence and the presence of bacteria.16 and 17 For this reason, current guidelines recommend acute antibiotic therapy for patients with more severe symptoms

of AE-COPD, with treatment typically lasting for 5–7 days.18, 19, 20 and 21 In particular, guidelines issued by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) and the Joint Task Force of the European Respiratory Society and the European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases advocate antibiotic use for check details those with Anthonisen type I (worsening dyspnoea with increased sputum volume and purulence) or type II (change in any two of these symptoms, particularly if one of these symptoms is increase in sputum purulence) episodes,18, 20 and 21 while the Canadian Thoracic Society suggests that antibiotics are beneficial for severe purulent AE-COPD (i.e. new increased expectoration of mucopurulent sputum and dyspnoea).19 Nevertheless, while such treatment has been shown to reduce the risk of subsequent exacerbations, relapse is common.22 Failure may be

related to this website inadequate antibiotic efficacy, which through incomplete resolution of the initial exacerbation and persistent bacterial infection is likely to influence risk of relapse.23, 24, 25, 26 and 27 Indeed, confirmed bacterial eradication following antibiotic therapy has been shown to be associated with higher clinical cure rates in patients with AE-COPD.28 Effective treatment of the acute exacerbation and reducing the risk of a subsequent bacterial exacerbation are thus important therapeutic goals for

antimicrobial treatment in COPD that may improve, in addition to other conventional treatments (e.g. long-acting bronchodilators and inhaled corticosteroids), the patients’ quality of life. The rate Meloxicam at which exacerbations occur appears to reflect an independent susceptibility phenotype.5 and 29 Furthermore, exacerbations appear to cluster together, with some patients remaining at high risk for recurrent exacerbation for some weeks after the initial exacerbation,5, 9, 30 and 31 possibly due to ongoing lung and systemic inflammation.32 While acquisition of new strains of respiratory pathogens is an important mechanism underlying acute COPD exacerbations,33 chronic microbial colonisation of the lower respiratory tract is also relevant.34, 35 and 36 This colonisation is likely to contribute to chronic inflammation and progressive loss of lung function in COPD due to increased rate of exacerbations.33, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39 Treatments aimed at reducing bacterial colonisation, which may be regarded as chronic infection in the presence of an inflammatory response,40 may, therefore, help reduce the progression of the disease.