Importantly, higher scale scores were associated with being a nondaily versus a daily smoker and fewer days of smoking in the past kinase inhibitor Cisplatin month among smokers. This is consistent with prior research indicating that low-level smokers are less likely to perceive themselves as smokers (Berg et al., 2009; Levinson et al., 2007). Perhaps, this reflects an individual��s inclination to reduce cognitive dissonance��that is, they maintain that they are not smokers despite smoking, by having a more restrictive definition of a smoker, which they themselves do not meet. This explanation might also contextualize the findings regarding perceived harm and intention to quit smoking. If an individual smokes but does not consider him- or herself a smoker, they may not perceive their behavior as harmful and thus may not be inclined to quit��or even see quitting as relevant (Berg et al.

, 2009, 2010). Moreover, having more favorable attitudes toward smoking restrictions were related to having less restrictive criteria for defining a smoker. This might reflect an overall stronger negative reaction to smoking, even very infrequently. The relationships of scale scores to social factors are difficult to explain. Higher Classifying a Smoker Scale scores were related to having nonsmoking parents, which may reflect less exposure to some of the factors involved in the scale (e.g., difficulty quitting, personality characteristics, etc.). Higher scores were also associated with greater perceived prevalence of smoking. This may be related to low-level or nondaily smokers perceiving prevalence of smoking to be greater but having more strict criteria about what a ��real�� smoker is.

Perhaps, both these findings reflect protective mechanisms that help the smoker to avoid confronting their own smoking behavior. These relationships deserve further examination. Implications for Research and Practice This study highlights the importance of how assessments are conducted, particularly given concerns that traditional surveillance systems may underestimate smoking (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2006; West, W., Przewozniak, & Jarvis, 2007). In research, this scale could be investigated to determine if young adults�� schemas Cilengitide of what constitutes a smoker may be related to smoking initiation, maintenance of a low level of smoking over time, and lack of intent to quit smoking (Berg et al., 2009). This might provide further validation of this scale, specifically predictive validity. Doing so may highlight specific intervention strategies for prevention of smoking uptake and cessation.